Biblical Archaeology Honor

Missionary & Community Activities

Requirements

  1. Define archaeology, distinguishing it from paleontology.

    Answer: Archaeology is the science that studies the human past through its material remains — artifacts, structures, mortal remains, ancient documents, and sediment strata where there was human activity. Paleontology is the science that studies the prehistoric life of extinct living beings (plants, animals, microorganisms) through fossils — petrified remains or impressions in rocks — in geological periods prior to the emergence of modern humans. — Archaeology is a social/humanistic science (it studies human beings), whereas paleontology is a natural/biological science (it studies life on Earth); in practice, at mixed sites there can be overlap (primitive humans hunting extinct animals), but the analytical focus differs — reference: 'Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice' (Renfrew & Bahn, 2018).

  2. Define the following terms:
    • Papyrologist
    • Egyptologist
    • Assyriologist
    • Orientalist
    • Cuneiform script
    • Hieroglyph
    • Paleography
    • Antiquarian
    • Archaeological site
    • Stratigraphy
    • Tel, tell and Khirbet
    • Replica

    Answer: 1) Papyrologist: a scholar of ancient papyri, that is, of the texts handwritten on papyrus produced in Egypt and the ancient Mediterranean world; analyzes, deciphers, and dates these documents. 2) Egyptologist: a specialist in the civilization of Ancient Egypt, studying its languages (including hieroglyphs), monuments, religion, pharaohs, and history. 3) Assyriologist: a specialist in the civilizations of Mesopotamia (Assyria, Babylon, and Sumer), including languages such as Akkadian, Sumerian, and cuneiform script. 4) Orientalist: a broad scholar of the East (Near, Middle, or Far), encompassing the languages, cultures, religions, and history of these peoples. 5) Cuneiform Script: the oldest known writing system, created by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia; it was made with a wedge-tipped stylus pressed onto moist clay tablets, hence the name (cuneus = wedge, in Latin). 6) Hieroglyph: a sign of the sacred writing of Ancient Egypt, composed of figures (people, animals, objects) that represent sounds, words, or ideas; it was used in temples, monuments, and tombs. 7) Paleography: the science that studies ancient writings, deciphering and dating handwritten documents based on the shape of the letters and the writing style of each era. 8) Antiquarian: a person who studies, collects, or trades ancient objects (antiquities); historically, the term also designated the scholar who devoted himself to the study of the past through its relics. 9) Archaeological site: a place where there are remains of human presence and activity from the past (structures, objects, burials), preserved in the ground and studied through excavation. 10) Stratigraphy: an archaeological method (borrowed from geology) that studies the succession of soil layers (strata); since the deeper layers are generally older, it helps to establish the chronological sequence of a site's occupations. 11) Tel, tell, and Khirbet: 'tel' and 'tell' are the same term (an artificial mound formed by the accumulation of several cities built one on top of the ruins of another over the centuries, common in the Near East); 'Khirbet' is an Arabic word meaning 'ruin' and indicates the site of an abandoned ancient settlement (e.g., Khirbet Qumran). 12) Replica: a faithful copy or reproduction of an ancient object or piece, made for study or display, without being the original. — These terms are standard in biblical archaeology — the Israel Antiquities Authority, the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, and the Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR) are academic sources that use these definitions; knowing each term is fundamental to reading excavation reports and specialized bibliography on the Holy Land.

  3. Name 10 tools used by an archaeologist in an excavation.

    Answer: 10 basic tools: 1) shovel; 2) pickaxe; 3) mason's trowel; 4) spatula; 5) soft brush; 6) sieve; 7) bucket; 8) tape measure/measuring ruler; 9) GPS; 10) camera. Each one has a specific function, from the coarse removal of soil to the detailed recording of finds at the excavation. — In modern excavations, electronic equipment is added: total station (precise coordinate measurement), magnetometer (maps subsurface anomalies), GPR (ground-penetrating radar), drones for aerial photography. The Marshalltown-type (or Leaky) mason's trowel is the archaeologist's 'trademark tool', and the soft brush removes dust without damaging fragile artifacts that are found.

  4. What are the main techniques for dating an archaeological artifact? Explain them.

    Answer: Main techniques: 1) STRATIGRAPHY (analyzes soil layers — older ones at the bottom); 2) CARBON-14 (radiocarbon in organic material, reaches up to 50,000 years); 3) DENDROCHRONOLOGY (tree rings, up to 13,000 years); 4) THERMOLUMINESCENCE (ceramics and bricks, measures accumulated radiation). — Carbon-14 (discovered by Willard Libby, 1949) revolutionized archaeology — Libby won the Nobel Prize in 1960. The technique is based on the half-life of C-14 (5,730 years): living organisms absorb C-14 from the atmosphere; upon death, they stop and the isotope decays. The C-14/C-12 ratio indicates how long ago the organic organism found died.

  5. Cite 3 benefits that biblical archaeology can bring to the student of the Bible.

    Answer: 3 benefits: 1) IT CONFIRMS HISTORICITY — discoveries such as the Tel Dan Tablet citing the 'House of David' (1993) and the Cyrus Cylinder confirm biblical figures and events; 2) IT CLARIFIES THE CONTEXT — knowing clothing, customs, geography, coins, and architecture helps to interpret the passages correctly; 3) IT STRENGTHENS FAITH AND CONFIDENCE IN THE BIBLE — the material evidence shows that the biblical accounts have a real historical basis, giving the student assurance and answering skeptical criticisms about the truthfulness of the Scriptures. — The Tel Dan Tablet (9th century BC) brought the first extra-biblical mention of the 'House of David', ending decades of minimalist debate over the king's historicity. Other key discoveries: Pontius Pilate Inscription at Caesarea (1961) and the Cyrus Cylinder (liberation of the Jews, 538 BC) — cited in Ezra and Isaiah 45.

  6. Write a report on the history of archaeology, at least 2 pages long.

    Answer: You must write a report of at least 2 pages on the history of archaeology: its beginnings in the Renaissance (15th-16th centuries), with the study of classical Antiquity; its birth as a science in the 19th century, with Heinrich Schliemann (Troy, 1870) and Flinders Petrie (Egypt, 1880); and biblical archaeology, with Edward Robinson (who mapped Palestine starting in 1838) and William F. Albright (20th century), up to landmark discoveries such as the Dead Sea Scrolls (1947). Relate this history to the confirmation of places and peoples cited in the Bible. — Milestones in history: Renaissance (rediscovery of antiquity), 1748 (Pompeii discovered), 1798 (Napoleon's expedition to Egypt), 1822 (Champollion deciphers hieroglyphs), 1870 (Schliemann at Troy), 1922 (Carter discovers Tutankhamun), 1947 (Dead Sea Scrolls), 1949 (Libby — C-14 dating). Biblical archaeology followed this evolution with Robinson and Albright.

  7. Write a biography of at least 1 page about:
    • Jean-François Champollion
    • Edward Robinson
    • William Foxwell Albright

    Answer: You must write a biography of at least 1 page about each of them: 1) JEAN-FRANÇOIS CHAMPOLLION (French, 1790-1832) — deciphered the Egyptian hieroglyphs in 1822 using the Rosetta Stone; 2) EDWARD ROBINSON (American, 1794-1863) — father of biblical archaeology, identified hundreds of sites in Palestine. — Champollion published 'Lettre à M. Dacier' in 1822 explaining the system of hieroglyphs. Robinson made 2 expeditions to Palestine (1838, 1852) and published 'Biblical Researches in Palestine'. Albright directed the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem (1920-1929), trained generations of archaeologists, and defended the historicity of the biblical accounts against the prevailing historical-critical skepticism.

  8. What are Maximalism and Minimalism?

    Answer: MAXIMALISM: a current that accepts the Bible as a reliable historical record and seeks archaeological evidence that confirms its accounts, treating the texts as a valid historical source until proven otherwise (school of William F. Albright). MINIMALISM: a skeptical current that considers the biblical text a late composition (written centuries after the events, especially in the Persian/Hellenistic period) and of little historical value, accepting as real only the facts independently proven by archaeology, and doubting the historical existence of figures such as David and Solomon without external evidence. — The maximalism vs. minimalism debate dominated biblical archaeology in the last decades of the 20th century. The Copenhagen School (Niels Lemche, Thomas Thompson) advocates radical minimalism. The discovery of the Tel Dan Tablet in 1993 mentioning the 'House of David' weakened radical minimalism, which denied the existence of David as a real historical figure.

  9. Assemble and maintain a folder with 10 archaeological discoveries that corroborate biblical history from both the Old and the New Testament. The folder must have the following characteristics:
    • Data in chronological or geographical order
    • Organized by Old and New Testament
    • Photos
    • Texts
    • Bibliographic sources
    • Personal comment about each artifact or discovery

    Answer: You must assemble a folder with 10 archaeological discoveries: OT — Tel Dan Tablet (House of David), Cyrus Cylinder, Mesha Inscription, Seal of Baruch, Dead Sea Scrolls; NT — Pontius Pilate Inscription (Caesarea), Peter's House (Capernaum), Pool of Bethesda, Caiaphas Ossuary, Sea of Galilee Boat. — The Caiaphas Ossuary (1990) bears a Hebrew inscription 'Yehosef bar Qayafa' and contains the bones of the high priest who judged Jesus. The 'Sea of Galilee Boat' (1986) is an 8-meter, 1st-century fishing boat, contemporary with the disciples. The 'Pontius Pilate Inscription' (1961) is the first archaeological evidence of the Roman governor who crucified Christ.

  10. List 5 excavations currently underway around the world that are relevant to understanding the biblical text. Explain why each excavation is relevant to understanding the biblical text.

    Answer: 5 ongoing excavations relevant to the biblical text: 1) CITY OF DAVID (Jerusalem) — continuously reveals structures from the monarchic period, helping to understand the Jerusalem of the kings of Israel; 2) TEL LACHISH (Israel) — fortifications and destruction layer from the Assyrian invasion, illustrating the siege described in 2 Kings 18-19; 3) TEL MEGIDDO (Israel) — gates and structures attributed to the period of Solomon (1 Kings 9:15), in addition to being the site associated with Armageddon; 4) KHIRBET QEIYAFA (Israel) — a fortified stronghold from the time of King David, with a possible ancient Hebrew inscription, evidencing an organized state in Judah during that period; 5) SHILOH (Israel) — an ancient sanctuary where the Tabernacle and the Ark stood before Jerusalem (Joshua 18:1; 1 Samuel 1), confirming the account of the period of the Judges. — The City of David (excavated since 1850, still active) reveals the expansion of Jerusalem under David and Hezekiah — including the famous Hezekiah's Tunnel (2 Chronicles 32:30). Khirbet Qeiyafa (2007-2013, Yosef Garfinkel) yielded an ostracon in ancient Hebrew (10th century BC) that suggests the existence of an organized state under David/Solomon, refuting the minimalists.

  11. Build a simple model of Jerusalem, observing the following:
    • Relief
    • The different perimeters of the city in the eras of the 1st temple (David and Solomon), the 2nd temple (Herod and Jesus Christ), and present-day Jerusalem.
    • The main archaeological sites
    • The main points of religious visitation

    Answer: You must build a simple model of Jerusalem in a material such as Styrofoam, cardboard, or modeling clay, showing: 1) RELIEF (Mounts Zion, Moriah, Olives, Kidron Valley); 2) PERIMETERS OF THE 3 ERAS (1st temple of David/Solomon in the City of David; 2nd temple of Herod/Jesus, larger; present-day Jerusalem, larger still). — Ancient Jerusalem (City of David) occupied only 4 hectares on the southeastern hill, outside the current walls. Under Solomon, it expanded to Mount Moriah (the Temple). Herod the Great enlarged it around 18 BC, building the Temple esplanade (10 hectares). Present-day Jerusalem, with 11 km², encompasses the 3 ancient cities plus modern areas.